Cultural Beliefs Around Death

Death and grief are universal human experiences. Every person who is born eventually dies, and every death brings a measure of sorrow and pain to those who are left behind. But cultural beliefs around death vary widely across the globe — from the sky burials of Tibet to the famed jazz funerals of New Orleans. And while grief is a universal emotion, people express their grief in very different ways. These differences are typically deeply embedded in the prevailing customs and culture of a geographic region, religion or ethnic group. 

There are many reasons why understanding death and dying in different cultures around the world may be important to you. Some of the reasons we at SevenPonds have encountered among our readers include:

• They want to learn more about the traditional practices and customs of their ancestors in order to incorporate them into a memorial service for a loved one who has died. These ancestral practices have taken on greater importance to many people today, and we want to help our readers explore ways to bring them into the modern world. For example, if your ancestors were Buddhists, you may wish to hold a simple funeral and decorate the casket with bright colors and scented candles as ancient Buddhists did. Or if your people hailed from Haiti, you might wish to interweave some traditional vudu rituals into a service for someone who has recently died. 
• They want to support a friend who has recently experienced a loss. We live in a diverse, multicultural society, and today more than ever we may have close relationships with people whose culture is very different from our own. By sharing information about the ways people from different countries, religions and ethnicities experience grief and loss, we hope to give our readers information that can help them offer meaningful support to a friend who is grieving a death. 
• They have been invited to take part in a funeral or memorial service of someone from a different culture, and they are concerned about what to wear, what to offer as a condolence gift, or how to behave at the service. Again, in our multicultural society, these are very legitimate concerns, since no one wants to offend the loved ones of someone who has died. Knowing, for example, that candles and rum are appropriate gifts to bring to a Guatemalan funeral would help someone from the American South feel more comfortable at such an event. 
• They are simply curious about how funeral practices and traditions evolved over time. How many of us know, for instance, that creating death masks and wax molds of the faces of the newly departed were ways in which the ancient Egyptians and Romans preserved the true likenesses of those they loved and revered? Long before photography was invented, these were honored traditions that allowed the living to maintain a connection to those who had died.

Obviously, these are just a few of the ways that learning about cultural beliefs around death and dying can help us relate to people whose culture is far different from our own. We hope that by sharing this information with our readers we are promoting greater empathy and a shared sense of the profound effects of death, grief and loss on all of our lives

What Is Culture? 

To better understand the ways in which cultural beliefs around death and dying affect us, it’s important to start with a general understanding of what culture is. 

In a very broad sense, culture is defined as the beliefs, behaviors, objects and other characteristics shared by groups of people. Culture may be based on shared ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion, customs, values or some combination thereof. People who share the same culture typically engage in similar rituals and practices. For example, in the U.S. and the U.K., a handshake is the accepted greeting when strangers meet, while in much of Europe, people greet each other with an “air kiss” on the cheek. And in Japan, India and parts of the Far East, strangers greet each other with a bow. These are all examples of cultural norms — the rules and expectations that determine how people behave in social groups. In a very real sense, they are the glue that holds a culture together, so they are reinforced by family, institutions and schools. 

In sociology, cultural norms are often broken down into four categories: 

• Folkways: Sometimes referred to as customs or conventions, folkways are socially dictated standards of behavior that are widely accepted but not morally significant. In U.S. culture, for example, wearing black to a funeral is customary. But in most cases, a person would not be ostracized or punished for choosing to wear red, green, blue or even white. 
• Mores: Stricter than folkways, mores are standards of behavior that are dictated by a generally accepted moral code. A violation of these standards — for example, using profanity at a funeral service — is generally considered morally objectionable by most people and society as a whole. 
• Taboos: Taboos are behaviors that are forbidden by a society and virtually always looked upon with disdain or disgust. Taboos can relate to behaviors as well as discussions. For example, in U.S. culture, necrophilia and cannibalism are so abhorrent to most people that even talking about them is taboo. 
• Laws: Laws are standards of behavior that are codified and enforced by the state. Virtually all taboos are also prohibited by law, but mores and folkways usually are not. For example, coming to a funeral intoxicated would be considered a violation of accepted mores in U.S. culture, but it isn’t against the law. On the other hand, vandalizing a grave or desecrating a human body is both taboo and illegal in all 50 states. 

Understanding these norms and their significance allows us to exist comfortably in society. What’s more, learning about the norms of other cultures can help us understand and appreciate what is important to people whose cultural backgrounds differ from our own. 

Tight Cultures Versus Loose Cultures

According to psychologist and author Michele Gelfand, how rigidly a group adheres to cultural norms, both in the realm of death and dying and elsewhere in their lives, is to some extent determined by how “tight” or “loose” that  culture is. That, in turn, is determined by several factors that affect the society as a whole. For example, tight cultures — those that demand rigid adherence to traditions and norms — tend to have several things in common. These include the following:

• Ecological and human-made threats: Societies that have endured a history of ecological threats (e.g., famine, disease or drought) or human-made threats (e.g., occupation or war) tend to demand greater adherence to cultural norms. This rigidity is a function of the need to coordinate the behaviors of all members of a group in order to ensure the survival of the whole. As the threat diminishes, expectations of conformity usually decrease. 
• Autocratic institutions: Culturally tight societies tend to have more autocratic governments, greater restrictions on the media, little tolerance for dissent, and stronger punishment for breaking the law. They also tend to be more religious and use religious doctrine to reinforce cultural norms. 
• More formal social interactions: Tight cultures tend to demand a higher level of formality in social interactions and tolerate a narrower range of behaviors both in public and in the home. 
• Psychological adaptations: People who live in tight cultures tend to adapt to the restrictions placed on them by becoming more cautious, more concerned with avoiding mistakes and more fearful of punishment than those who live in a more permissive environment. 

Understanding this framework can help all of us develop a more diverse perspective and greater acceptance of cultures that are vastly different from our own. It may also help us to understand why some cultures, such as those of Japan and China, adhere rigidly to tradition, while others, like Australia and the U.S., appear more relaxed around traditions involving death and dying as well as other parts of their lives. 

The Importance of Culture in Death and Dying 

Cultural norms exist around all aspects of life, including death, remembrance and mourning. And while some norms are shared by many cultures (for example, burying or cremating the dead), the traditions and rituals observed around these norms vary enormously. In the U.S. and Canada, for example, cremation has surpassed burial as the preferred form of final disposition. But that doesn’t mean that cremation is the preferred method of disposition for all of the nearly 400 million people living in North America. Members of the Greek Orthodox, Jewish and Islamic religious communities, for example, are traditionally prohibited from cremating their dead no matter where they live. (We should note here that some Reform Jewish rabbis have taken a more flexible position on cremation in recent years, according to Rabbi Victor Appell.) 

Similarly, among the 1.2 billion Roman Catholics worldwide, rituals and traditions around death and mourning vary considerably depending on where they live. A Catholic funeral in San Paolo, Brazil, would likely be very different from the same service held in Africa, where ancient beliefs about life and death persevere, even in the face of Catholicism’s influence. 

With all that being said, it is possible and often helpful to understand the deathways of various cultures, even though not everyone in the culture will adhere to the same norms. For that reason, SevenPonds has put together the following articles that provide an overview of the traditions, rituals and values of various cultures around the world. 

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Death, Dying & Mourning Practices in Countries Around the World

In order to help our readers find the information they need about how specific cultures deal with death and mourning, we have organized this content into several categories. The first of these is Geographic Region or Continent; the second is Country. Following each country’s name, you will find an array of articles that discuss the various beliefs, traditions and rituals held by the people who live there. 

Below these articles you will find a section on the world’s Major Religions and their beliefs and traditions around death. 

These articles are not, of course, all inclusive. Within every region, every nation and every religion there are a wide variety of cultural norms. Our goal is simply to offer you a glimpse into some of the most prevalent and interesting practices around death, dying and grieving in countries across the globe. 

Please feel free to peruse the articles at your leisure or just click on the titles that interest you to learn more. Or, if you are searching for a specific geographic region or country, you can use the menu below. 

North America

• United States (includes separate sections for Native Americans, including Native Alaskans (Inuits) and Native Hawaiians (Kānaka Maoli.)
• Canada
• Mexico
• Central America
• The Caribbean

Central America

• Guatemala

South America

• Brazil
• Bolivia
• Peru

Europe

• Switzerland
• Germany
• The Netherlands
• Great Britain
• Ireland
• France
• Spain
• Italy 
• Greece
• Denmark
• Sweden

Eastern Europe

• Ukraine
• Romania
• Czech Republic
• Belarus
• Russia
• Estonia

Asia

• Japan
• China
• Tibet
• Vietnam 
• Indonesia
• South Korea

Oceania (includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands)

• Oceania

Africa

• West Africa 
• Liberia
• Burkina Faso
• Ghana
• Nigeria
• Kenya
• Uganda
• Somalia
• The Massai
• South Africa
• Madagascar
• Morocco
• Egypt

Religions

• Christianity
• Islam
• Hinduism
• Buddhism
• Judaism
• Jainism
• Religiously Unaffiliated

The United States is a very large country comprising 50 states, each with its own state Constitution and laws. With a population of nearly 330 million made up of people from dozens of different cultures and ethnicities, its practices around death and dying are varied and rich. The following articles offer a sampling of death practices and traditions you might encounter among the people living in various regions of the U.S., including the Inuit people of Alaska and Native Hawaiians. 

Here are 27 practices:

• Ethnic Minorities in Cities Across the U.S. Honor Their Loved Ones on Memorial T-shirts. 

• Every August, Thousands of Americans Gather in the Nevada Desert to Honor Impermanence at Nine-Day Festival Known as “Burning Man” 
• Americans Display Their Irreverent Humor by Giving Cocktails Deadly Names
• One of America’s Favorite Columnists Takes a Humorous Look at Where Cats Go After Crossing “The Rainbow Bridge.” 
• Long Before Funeral Homes Became the Norm, American Women Cared for the Dying and the Dead
• Upon Their Arrival in the New World, America’s Pilgrims Faced Mass Death and Impossible Burials
• Each Year on the Summer Solstice, Hundreds of Americans Celebrate the Cycle of Life and Death at The Pagan Spirit Gathering in Illinois.
• Social Media Is Impacting How Americans Mourn in Positive and Negative Ways.
• More Americans Are Choosing to “Witness” Their Loved One’s Cremations, But the Option Isn’t Available to All
• In the U.S., The Tradition of Sending Flowers to Mourners Dates Back Hundreds of Years
• The Traditional Burial Practices of America’s South Appalachian Mountains Are Enjoying a Rebirth in Today’s Green Burials
• African Americans in New Orleans Carries on the Age-Old Tradition of Playing Festive Jazz Music as a Send-Off for the Dead
• A West African Tradition of Dancing the Dead to Their Final Resting Place Is Still Practiced in the American South
• Some Americans Are Adopting the Ancient Tradition of Capturing Tears in Small Bottles as a Tribute to Those Who Have Died
• During the Victorian Age, American Women Turned Black Mourning Attire into Seductive Dresses to Attract the Opposite Sex
• Some Americans Are Incorporating Their Loved Ones’ Cremation Ashes Into Memorial Tattoos
• Long-Standing Military Rituals Honor Veterans of the U.S. Armed Forces After Their Death
• Horses and Flags Have Been an Integral Part of American Military Funerals for Over a Century, 
• Gunfire Has Become a Widely Accepted Way to Salute Fallen Soldiers Who Served in the U.S. Military
• In American Cities Hard Hit by Gang Violence, Drive-Thru Funerals Offer a Safe, Convenient, But Deeply Unsatisfying Way to Say Goodbye 
• Victorian-Era Funeral Wreaths Are Inspiring Americans to Create Beautiful, DIY Wreaths as Modern Funeral Decor
• In a Fitting Tribute, “Star Trek” Creator Gene Roddenberry Took a Symbolic Spaceflight After His Death 
• Two U.S. Companies Are Offering to Fly a Small Part of Your Cremation Ashes Into Space and Back
• Cremation Has Surpassed Burial as the Preferred Method of Final Disposition in the U.S. 
• Though Technically Illegal in the U.S., Psychedelics Like Ayahuasca Are Enjoying a New Found Acceptance in End-of-Life Care
• The Funeral Traditions of America’s Earliest Settlers Reflected the Harsh Realities of Their Difficult and Too Short Lives
• Americans Are Turning to Digital Tools to Connect With Their Ancestral Roots

The term Native Americans or Indigenous Americans encompasses numerous cultures and subcultures. According to the National Congress of American Indians, there are 574 federally recognized Indian Nations (also known as tribes, bands, communities and native villages.) About 229 of these tribes are located in Alaska, where Indigenous Americans are generally referred to as Inuits (the term Eskimo has fallen out of favor in recent years.) Others are spread over 35 states, including Hawaii, where over 525,000 people identify as Native Hawaiians — descendants of the island chain’s original Polynesian settlers. Like the rest of the U.S., these groups are culturally, linguistically and ethnically diverse. For this reason, it’s important to recognize that any of the following articles may only apply to the particular tribe that is discussed therein. 

• On the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation in Central Minnesota, People of the Ojibwe Tribe Practice Rituals that Honor the Connection Between the Living and the Dead
• Since 2016, Citizens of the Lakota/Dakota/Nakota Nations Have Been Battling U.S. Oil Companies to Preserve Ancient Burial Sites
• Native American Tribes of the Pacific Northwest Are Working to Preserve Centuries-Old Totem Poles that Honor the Dead
• Among Many Native American Tribes, Life and Death Are Part of an Infinite Continuum with No Beginning and No End
• Long Before the Term Green Burial Existed, Native American Tribes Across the U.S. Practiced Rituals That Honored the Earth Along with the Dead

• The Tolkotin Tribe of the Pacific Northwest Had Elaborate Burial Traditions That Included a Ritual Cremation Followed by a Burial.
• The Wampanoag Tribe of New England Sent the Dead to Their Graves with Tools and Furs to Use in the Afterlife 
• Some Ancient Hawaiian Tribes Buried Secretly Buried Their Dead in Natural Caves Tucked into the Island’s Lava Rock

Canada is a large and culturally diverse country. Its original inhabitants were the same Native American tribes that populated much of the U.S., including the Souix, the Huron-Wendat, the Iroquois, and the Cree. But European settlers, first from France and later from Great Britain, colonized the country, leaving only small populations of Indigenous inhabitants in their wake. 

Today, two main groups dominate Canadian culture, those of French descent (French Canadians) and those of British descent. Although the two battled for control of the country for more than a century, they now live quite amicably side by side, speaking different languages and practicing different religions (most French Canadians are Catholic; most of the Britons are Protestant.) There are also about 1.67 million Canadians who identify as Aboriginal persons. They are divided between First Persons (Indians), Inuits and Metis. Each of these groups has its own language, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs, including beliefs about death and the afterlife. 

With that being said, traditional funerals with the body present remain the norm for most Canadians, followed by cremation or, less often, burial. Canada has the highest cremation rate in North America at 73%. 

Read more about how Canadians view death, mourning and remembrance below. 

• The Indigenous Haida People of Canada’s Pacific Northwest Once Left Their Dead to Decay in the Elements in Open Pits

The country of Mexico is large and diverse, with over 31 states and one federal district, each with its own cultural norms. Once home to three of the pre-Columbian world’s most sophisticated civilizations (the Toltecs, the Mayans and the Aztecs), Mexican culture was heavily influenced by the Spanish, who destroyed the Aztec Empire in 1521 and occupied the country until it won its independence in 1822. Due to the influence of Spain and the many Roman Catholic missionaries who began arriving in the country around 1523, modern Mexico is overwhelmingly Catholic. Nonetheless, many of the country’s over 100 million people retain deep bonds with their indigenous roots, and their traditions and rituals around death and mourning reflect that connection in many ways.

Read more about Mexican traditions, customs and beliefs around death and mourning below.

• Mexico’s Ancient Aztecs Had a Belief System Around Death So Complex  That It Included over 1,000 Gods, 14 Heavens and Nine Hells. 
• In Central Mexico, the Influence of the Ancient Zapotec Culture Is Still Felt in Modern Rituals Around Death
• Each Year on Mexico’s Day of the Dead, Families Honor Those Who Have Died by Building Ceremonial Altars and Lighting Candles in Their Homes
• Mexico’s Day of the Dead Is Actually a Celebration of Life
• Ancient Zapotec Rituals Included Burying the Dead Under the Family Home, Bloodletting at the Gravesite and Preserving Loved Ones’ Bones

Central America is a narrow isthmus that sits between North America and South America. It  comprises the countries of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama. Originally home to many Native Americans, the area was colonized by the Spanish in the early 1500s, and Spanish culture and the Roman Catholic Church (nearly three-quarters of Spaniards are Catholic) have heavily influenced the region since that time.. Nonetheless, many of the traditions of the Indigenous people of Central America, including rituals around death and mourning, live on to this day. 

Read more about some Central American beliefs and customs around death, mourning and remembrance below.

• A Mix of Ancient Superstitions and Roman Catholic Rituals Are Apparent at Guatemalan Funerals

The Islands of the Caribbean are located in the Caribbean Sea to the east of Central America. The largest of these islands are Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Hispaniola (which encompasses the Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse, the islands are largely populated by the descendants of African slaves, 5 million of whom were brought to the Caribbean in the early 18th century by Spanish settlers to work the sugar cane fields. Later, the Spanish were joined by other European settlers and large numbers of Christian missionaries, which accounts for much of the cultural diversity seen in the islands today. 

Although nominally Christian, many of the islands’ inhabitants cling strongly to their African roots, and ancient superstitions, mysticism and rituals, especially around death and the afterlife, are still prevalent throughout. 

Read more about the beliefs and traditions of the people of the Caribbean below.

Haitians

• In the Tiny Country of Haiti, Ancient African Funeral Traditions Are Evident in the Widespread Practice of Vodou

Jamaicans

• In Jamaica, Mourners Prepare a Meal For a Deceased Loved One On The Ninth Night After Their Death to Celebrate Their Entry Into the Spirit World.

A giant country by any standards, Brazil occupies half of South America’s land mass and is home to 211 million people. Believed to have been inhabited for nearly 30,000 years, the country has one of the most diverse populations in the world, from the dozens of uncontacted Indigenous tribes of the Amazon Basin to millions of immigrants from all over the globe. Its official language is Portuguese, and the predominant religion is Roman Catholic. But ancient traditions and rituals around death and mourning still abound. 

Read more about Brazilians customs and beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• In the Amazon Rainforest of Brazil, the Xingu Indian Tribes Hold Fiercely to Ancient Traditions, Including a Celebration of Life and Death Called Quarap
• In the Warm, Moist Climate of Brazil, Funerals Happen Shortly After Death with Little Time to Prepare 
• For the Yanomami Tribe of the Amazon, Consuming the Ashes of Loved Ones is a Way to Honor the Dead and Keep Their Spirits Alive

A relatively small, landlocked country, Bolivia is a nation of extremes. About 30% of its land mass is in the Andean region, with an average elevation of nearly 10,000 feet, with some areas reaching over 21,000 feet. On the other end of the spectrum, the Llanos region in the northeast is mostly flat land and plateaus covered by rainforests containing some of the greatest biodiversity on earth. 

Most of the population of Bolivia is mestizo, a mix of Indigenous native and European ancestry. There are also 10 subgroups of Indigenous peoples who make up about 40% of the population. Of these, the Aymara and Quechua tribes are the largest groups. Each of these tribes have their own culture, language and spiritual beliefs, including differing rituals and traditions around death. 

Read more about some Bolivian customs and beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• The Indigenous Aymara People of Brazil Keep Skulls Called Ñatitas in Their Homes for Good Fortune and Good Health

The country of Peru is, like much of South America, a land of extremes, with the towering Andes to the west, and Amazonia — an area where dense cloud-covered forests and the jungles of the Amazon Basin meet — to the east. 

Like Bolivians, the people of Peru are about 60% mestizo and 20% Quechua, descendants of the region’s indigenous tribes. Once dominated by the Inca empire, the country was colonized by Spain in the early 1500s, and much of its traditional culture disappeared. Today, about 70% Peruvians live in modern urban areas, where most of the country’s wealth resides. Nonetheless, much of the country’s ancient customs and traditions, including those around death and mourning, still survive. 

Read more about some Peruvian beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• Deep in the Amazon Jungle, the Matsigenka People of Peru Live in Fear of Were-Jaguars Who Embody the Spirits of the Dead
• High in the Andes, an Ancient Tomb Is Believed to Contain the Remains of a Royal Member of the Wari Tribe of Peru
• The Now-Extinct Chinchorro People of Peru Practiced Mummification Long Before the Egyptians
• Deep in the Peruvian Jungle, Westerners Seek Healing With a Psychedelic Plant Known as Ayahuasca

A tiny country known for its crystal clear lakes and breathtaking mountains, Switzerland is a wealthy nation with a high standard of living and two of the most “livable” cities in the world, Zurich and Geneva. Although the majority of the population is native Swiss, the country has more expats living within its borders than any other European nation. A highly educated and innovative people, the Swiss are known for their pragmatic attitude, which includes relatively widespread acceptance of both euthanasia and assisted suicide.The country is also one of only two in Europe that allows medical aid in dying (known as assisted voluntary dying, or AVD.)

Read more about some Swiss customs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• Always Aware of the Beauty of Their Surroundings, the Swiss Bury Their Dead in Ways That Preserve the Environment
• Following a Trend That Originated in Switzerland, Clown “Doctors” Visit Children in Hospitals Across the Globe

Germany is a beautiful country with a rich and varied history, from the castles and moats of the ancient Germanic people to the horrors of the Holocaust, to its post-WWII occupation and the erection of the Berlin Wall. It’s also a large, densely populated nation of about 81 million people that emerged from the Cold War with one of the strongest economies in the world. 

Sensible and logical, the German people revere order, punctuality and respect for authority. But they are also fun-loving gourmands who love bread and sausage (there are over 1,000 kinds of sausage sold there) and are the second largest consumers of beer in the world. As a whole,Germans have a deep respect for nature and a strong commitment to sustainability. (Over a third of the country is still undeveloped forest.) This attitude is reflected in many of their beliefs around death and mourning as well. 

Read more about German customs and beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• Germany’s World-Renowned Forests Serve as Natural Burial Grounds for Cremated Remains.
• Always Practical, Germans Bake a Special Sugar Cake that They Serve at Both Weddings and Funerals
• During the Middle Ages, a German Friar Wrote the“Ars Moriendi” to Instruct the Community on How to Prepare for Death

Independent, immensely practical and very direct, the people of the Netherlands are highly educated and have a deep regard for personal autonomy. They are also one of the world’s most secularized cultures (only about 40% of the population has a religious affiliation, and few of those attend church). Nonetheless, the Dutch tend to view death and mourning in a very somber light.

Interestingly, euthanasia and physician assisted dying are illegal in the Netherlands, but physicians may engage in the practice without fear of prosecution as long as they follow the guidelines drafted in 1987 by the Royal Dutch Medical Association. According to New Scientist, about 2,700 terminally ill Dutch patients receive lethal injections from their doctors every year. 

Read more about Dutch beliefs and costumes around death and dying below.

• In the Tradition of Ancient Romans, Dutch “Funeral Clown” Roelof van Wijngaarden Strives to Help Mourners Laugh Through Their Tears

An island in the North Atlantic Ocean, Great Britain comprises three independent nations, England, Scotland and Wales, as well as the outlying islands surrounding it. Until recently, the three countries were part of the European Union, but in January 2020, the United Kingdom (which comprises England and Northern Ireland) withdrew from the alliance. Wales and Scotland did not. 

Great Britain has been inhabited by modern humans for over 30,000 years. Steeped in history, the largely maritime region is dotted with castles and ancient ruins, including England’s world famous Stonehenge. Although modern culture has taken hold in most urban areas, much of the country’s rural population still holds firmly to traditional ways of life, including their approach to death, mourning and remembrance. 

Read more about British customs and beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below

• Since Ancient Times, the Tolling of Church Bells Has Signaled Death to Communities in Great Britain 
• In Ancient Wales, Unexplained Lights Around the Homes of the Dead Were Believed to Portend the Death of Those Who Saw Them
• Great Britain’s Ancient Celts Buried Their Dead With Everything They Would Need to Resume Life in the “Otherworld”
• In Ancient Times, the Celts Celebrated Fall with Fire and a Silent Feast to Ward Off the Spirits of the Dead 
• In an Ancient Burial Rite, the Scottish Place a Wooden Plate Covered with Salt and Dirt on the Graves of Those They Love
• Throughout Great Britain and Much of Western Europe, Bees Were Central to Survival And Beliefs Around Life and Death

Nicknamed the Emerald Isle, Ireland is an island nation that sits just off the westernmost coast of Europe. About 80% of the region comprises the Republic of Ireland (Southern Ireland), an independent nation made up mostly of people of the Catholic faith. A small area to the north, known as Northern Ireland, is part of the U.K. The official language of the country is Irish (Gaeilge), but English is spoken by most of the population except for small pockets along the western coast.

Once a poor country ravaged by famine and civil unrest, in recent years Ireland has become one of Europe’s most vibrant economies, fueled by thriving high-tech, financial services and agribusiness industries. Still, many of the Irish hold fast to their Celtic roots, and have a great reverence for nature and rural life. These traditional beliefs are often reflected in how the Irish celebrate and mourn their dead. 

Read more about some Irish customs and beliefs around death, mourning and remembrance below.

• Although Decidedly Irish, the Tradition of a Wake Actually Began with the Ancient Jews

A picturesque country with a mild, oceanic climate, France is one of the world’s premier tourist destinations and a “melting pot” of people from all over Europe, Northern Africa, Central Asia and the Middle East. Predominantly Roman Catholic and Protestant, France has one of the largest Muslim populations in Europe: Over 5 million Muslims currently reside there, mostly in Marseille in southeastern France, as well as in the cities of Paris and Lyon. 

Because of their cultural and ethnic diversity, the people of France follow many different traditions and rituals around death and mourning, depending largely on their religious affiliation and where in the country they live. Below are a few examples of French traditions from the past and modern times. 

• Long Ago in Rural France, Some Graves Were Marked with Mysterious Stone Towers with Lanterns at the Top
• In Many French Towns, Those in Mourning Leave a “Funeral Book” on Their Doorstep So Friends and Family Can Leave Messages of Support
• After the Closure of Paris’ Cemeteries in 1785, the City Built an Underground “Empire of the Dead” to Hold the Bones of Bodies That Were Displaced
• The Breton People of Northwestern France Have Some Unique Beliefs About Food and Death

Once ruled by Islamic Moors, Spain was a world power that ruled over much of Europe and the Americas from the time of Columbus’ first voyage in 1492 throughout most of the ensuing 300 years. But the country’s power began to wane during the 16th and 17th centuries, and while its cultural influence can still be seen across the globe, it no longer has the global impact it once enjoyed. 

Today’s Spain is a modern country of about 46 million people who are divided into a number of distinct ethnic groups. About 75% of the population are Castilian, who speak Spanish and live in the historic region of Castile in central Spain. Another 16% are Catalans, who reside in the independent region of Catalonia — a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and the Pyrenees mountain range. The two smallest ethnic groups are the Galicians, who hail from Galicia in the northwestern Iberian peninsula, and the Basques. Together form about 9% of the population as a whole. Each of these groups has its own language, traditions and cultural norms around all aspects of life, including death. 

Read about some Spanish beliefs and customs around death, dying and remembrance below. 

• In a Traditional Spanish Funeral, Interment Is Usually Within 24 Hours in an Above Ground Vault That the Family Rents for a Short Time
• In Catalonia’s Capital of Barcelona, Mourners Can See Their Dead Loved Ones for Up To 24 Hours Before Burial, But Only Behind a Pane of Glass

Once the seat of the ancient Roman Empire, (27 BCE- 476 CE) Italy’s heritage is rich and varied. Largely responsible for the Renaissance, the country gave birth to some of the most revered artists of all time, including Michaelangelo, DaVinci and Raphael. It was also home to one of the modern world’s most tyrannical dictators, Benito Mussolini, an ally of Adolf Hitler who was executed by his countrymen at the end of WWII. Most importantly perhaps, the country is the home of the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church and the sovereign, independent Vatican City State, where the Pope resides.

Italy is a traditional country, where art, architecture, food and music have long been cultural staples and are still to this day. Overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, the country is ethnically homogenous, with over 90% of the population being native Italian. And though the Church and State are technically separate, the Vatican and its hierarchy continue to have enormous influence over Italy’s politics, laws and cultural norms, including those that govern death, mourning and remembrance. 

Read about some death practices of Italians, from ancient Rome to modern-day Italy, below.

• In Ancient Rome, Wax Replicas of the Faces and Heads of Those Who Died Were Prepared Immediately After Death and Kept in the Family Home
• Long Before the Invention of Photography, the Ancient Romans Created Death Masks to Memorialize and Honor Their Dead
• The Ancient Roman Practice of Sending Clowns to Funerals to Ease the Sadness Is Being Resurrected in Countries Around the World
• After the Fall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire Survived, Creating Splendid Art Dedicated to Celebrating the Dead
• The Traditional Italian Funeral Is A Solemn Religious Rite with a Small Dose of Old Country Superstition Thrown In

A mountainous peninsula with an astonishing 13,676 kilometers (nearly 8,500 miles) of coastline, Greece is a nation with strong, long-standing ties to the sea. Known for fishing, ship-building and maritime trade, the country sits at the intersection of Europe, Africa and Asia, and its diverse, distinctive culture reflects that. Greeks love good food, good wine, music and dancing, but are, at the same time, extremely religious. Over 98% of the population are Orthodox Christians, and the customs and norms of the country, including its rituals around death, mourning and remembrance, are heavily influenced by the teachings of the Church,

Read about some Greek beliefs and customs around death and dying below.

• Despite the Passage of Centuries, Greek Funerals Are Still Very Similar to Those Held in Ancient Times
• The Traditional Epitaph Is a Modern Invention, But It Dates Back to Ancient Greece
• In a Tradition That Dates Back Centuries, the Greek Orthodox Celebrate Easter in Unique Ways 
• The Three-Part Funeral Rites of Ancient Greece Reflected Both Fear of and Reverence for Death
• In the Mythology of Ancient Greece, the Afterlife Was a Terrifying Place Presided Over by the Tyrant-God Hades.
• The Ancient Greek Practice of Sending Clowns to Funerals Is Being Resurrected in Countries Around the World
• Symbolism Around the Death and Resurrection of Jesus Play an Important Part in Greek Easter Celebrations 
• In Ancient Greece, Mourners Are Believed to Have Captured Their Tears in Tiny Bottles That Were Then Placed in the Tomb of the Deceased.
• Was the Greek God Hermes the World’s First Death Doula? Legend Suggests He Was

Like their close neighbors to the north, the Dutch, the people of Denmark are open-minded, cosmopolitan and very direct. A modern, egalitarian society, the Danish are known for punctuality, politeness and an open communication style. The country is, overall, highly educated and affluent, with a strong middle class and little poverty. Although the countryside is dotted with small villages, castles, and open air markets, almost 90% of Denmark’s nearly 6 million people live in cities, which are quite lovely and picturesque in their own right. 

Danish traditions revolve largely around Christianity and Christian culture. About 85% of the population is Evangelical Lutheran, and the Church has been influential in shaping many cultural norms, including those around death and dying. Nonetheless, some superstitions and beliefs from ancient times still persist. 

Read about some common beliefs around death held by the Danish people in the articles below. 

• In Denmark, Leaving a Window Open after Death Is Thought to Allow the Soul to Escape

Officially known as the Kingdom of Sweden, Sweden is a country of about 10 million people that is bordered by Norway, Finland and the Baltic Sea. An egalitarian people who emphasize civility, generosity and punctuality, Swedes, as a rule, are family-oriented, health conscious and highly respectful of the environment in which they live. They are also very private, which means celebrations, including funerals and memorial services, are usually small, intimate affairs. 

Sweden’s national church is the Evangelical Lutheran church, which boasts over 5 million members. However, only about 2% of those members attend religious services regularly, and only 17% of Swedes say that religion is part of their daily lives. Nevertheless, the church retains a great deal of influence over rituals and practices around the end of life. 

• In Death as in Life, Swedes Emphasize Family and Privacy Celebrations

A chain of islands along the eastern coast of Asia, Japan is one of the most densely populated countries on earth, with a population of about 126 million people living in an area slightly smaller than the state of California. 

A country steeped in tradition, Japan boasts a remarkably homogeneous culture. Shared values, such as respect for authority, reverence for ancestors, and an extremely strong work ethic, are taught from an early age and strictly enforced through social norms.The majority of the country’s inhabitants are religious, and practice either Shinto or Buddhism or, in many cases, a combination of the two. Festivals that celebrate long-dead ancestors, such as the Buddhist Bon Festival, are common in both religions, and death rituals and funerals typically blend practices from both.

Below you will find a few examples of Japanese death practices from ancient to modern times.

• In Japan and Other Parts of East Asia, Living Funerals Are Gaining Popularity
• Buddhist Traditions and Cremation Dominate Japan’s Approach to the End of Life
• Unlike Much of  Western Society, Many in Japan View Suicide as a Noble Act  
• The Number Four Sparks Mortal Terror in the Hearts of Many  Japanese
• Like Many Cultures Around the World, the Japanese Engage in Rituals to Keep Evil Spirits at Bay
• The Japanese Honor Dead Loved Ones With Gifts and  Ceremony Each Year

A sprawling country with a population of over 1.4 billion people, China is the world’s oldest living civilization, with a written history that goes back over 3,500 years. Although the Communist Party has had an enormous influence on the country since the inception of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, ancient beliefs and traditions are still deeply ingrained in many of China’s citizens. Family is highly valued, and multigenerational homes are the norm. The vast majority of the population are either atheist or irreligious, thanks in part to the influence of both the Communist Party and belief in Confucianism, an ancient humanistic philosophy that emphasizes respect for authority, family unity, and social harmony over theistic beliefs.

China is fairly ethnically homogenous, with over 90% of the population belonging to the Han ethnic group. However, there are also 56 ethnic minorities in the country, each with its own language, culture and spiritual beliefs. For the most part, practices around death and mourning are defined by the ethnicity of the person who died. 

Read more about Chinese beliefs and customs around death, mourning and remembrance below.

• At a Typical Chinese Funeral, the Element of Fire Takes Center Stage
• Borrowing from the Swiss, China’s Health Care System Has Brought in Clowns to Entertain the Sick
• Newly discovered Carvings from the Ancient Jin Dynasty Hint at Belief in Life After Death 
• The Ancient Bo People of Southern China Placed Coffins on Cliff Sides to Remember the Dead
• An Ancient Ritual, China’s Tomb Sweeping Day Honors Long-Dead Ancestors
• China’s First Emperor Built an Army of Clay Soldiers to Protect Him in the Afterlife 
• Ancient Chinese Rituals Try to Keep Evil Spirits at Bay 
• Well-Paid Professional Mourners Bring Ritual and Tears to Modern Chinese Funerals
• In Taiwan, Scantily Clad Exotic Dancers Ensure a Big Send-Off for the Newly Departed

One of the oldest civilizations in Southeast Asia, the culture of Vietnam has been heavily influenced by years of colonization, first by the Chinese and later by the French. Scarred by 40 years of war during the mid-20th century, the once-divided country is now unified under a single regime, but many social woes, including an aging population, income inequality, and an unsafe food supply, remain. 

Vietnam is a diverse society, with over 55 ethnic minorities represented in its population of nearly 100 million, each with its own language, traditions and style of dress. Like neighboring China, it is an irreligious society, with only a small minority of its citizens professing a faith. Ancestor worship is common, as is a diluted form of Taoism — an atheistic belief system similar to Confucianism that teaches simplicity, spontaneity and harmony with the natural world. Like the Chinese, most Vietnamese adhere to a belief system that reveres the dead and places great significance on funeral rites and mourning rituals, which typically last for a full year. 

Read more about Vietnamese traditions around death and dying below. 

• Food and Superstition Play an Equal Role in Vietnamese Mourning Rituals
• After a Death, Vietnamese Families Work Together to Provide Everything Their Loved One Needs for the Afterlife

The Philippines is an island nation in Southeast Asia, with a diverse population of over 50 distinct ethnic groups who speak more than 140 different languages, although most of the population speaks English as well. About 85% of the population is  Catholic, thanks in large part to the Spanish settlers and missionaries who arrived in the country during the 16th century. 

Despite their ethnic and linguistic diversity, Filipinos share a consistent value system that emphasizes loyalty to family and community over individual needs. Social acceptance is extremely important to most Filipinos, and, as a people, they strive to maintain harmony in interpersonal relationships and within the social groups to which they belong. They are also deeply religious, and their traditions, including those around death and mourning, closely follow the teachings of the Catholic Church. With that being said, in some remote areas of the islands where indigenous natives live, ancient belief systems and burial rites still prevail. 

Learn more about Filipino beliefs about death and mourning below. 

• In Some Parts of the Philippines, Ancient Burial Rites Are Still Practiced Today
• A Mix of Superstition and Religion Creates Unique Burial Traditions in the Philippines

Tibet is an autonomous region within the People’s Republic of China, which has maintained control over the region since 1951. It is the highest region in the world, with an average elevation of 14,370 feet above sea level, and is home to the world’s tallest mountain, Mount Everest (29,032 feet.) Due to its elevation, much of the region has a formidable climate and little arable land. However, at lower elevations, temperatures are more moderate and many species of native plants abound.

Historically, Tibetans are a nomadic people who make their living herding sheep and yaks. Even today, few cities exist in the region, and most of its people live in small villages or, in the case of Tibetan nomads, temporary encampments on the high desert plains. The predominant religion is Tibetan Buddhism, which teaches the value of right action (karma) and reincarnation, and has a highly ritualized approach to dying and death. 

Read more about the death practices and customs of the Tibetan people below. 

• Tibetan Buddhists Advocate a Spiritual Approach to Dying to Ensure a Positive Rebirth
• Tibetan Buddhists Believe in the Concept of “Bardo,” the State Between Death and Rebirth
• The Ancient Practice of Sky Burial Is an Act of Love in Tibet
• A Tibetan Buddhist Meditation Called “Phowa’  Prepares the Mind for Death

A geographic region in the Southern hemisphere, Oceania includes the continent of Australia, New Zealand, and over 10,000 smaller islands with a total land mass (excluding Australia) of over 317,000 square miles.The exact composition of the region varies according to who is describing it. In the broadest sense, it includes all of the Pacific islands between Asia and the Americas. But most geographers exclude the islands most closely associated with the Asian mainland, such as the Ryukyu, Kuril, and Aleutian islands and the Japanese archipelago, as well as Indonesia, Taiwan, and the Philippines. In the most restrictive sense it includes Australasia (Australia and New Zealand), Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. 

With the exception of Australasia, most of Oceania was uninhabited until about 33,000 years ago; most historians believe that the original inhabitants were Southeast Asians who arrived in the region on canoes.Oceania is home to many indigenous cultures, including the Maoris of New Zealand and Aboriginal Australians, who comprise about 250 distinct cultural groups. Although colonization has resulted in many of the inhabitants embracing European ways, for many Pacific islanders, traditional belief systems, including practices around death and dying, still persist.

Read on to learn more about the death practices of the people of Oceania. 

New Guineans

• In An Ancient Ritual Rarely Practiced Today, The Dani People Of New Guinea Express Their Grief By Amputating Part Of A Finger

Australians

• Some Aboriginal Australian Tribes Practice Open-Air Burial To Ceremonially Dispose Of The Dead.

New Zealanders

• The Maori People Of New Zealand Practice Elaborate Rituals Around Death, Mourning And Remembrance. 
• Ancient Maori Tribes Used “Ta Moko” Tattoos To Memorialize The Dead

Gilbertese (island of Kiribati)

• On The Tiny  Island Nation Of Kiribati, Christian Deathways Blend With An Ancient Practice Of Exhuming The Dead And Removing The Skull.

Samoans

• In Traditional Somoan Culture, Deaths Are Announced By An Orator Known As A Tulafale

The world’s largest island nation, Indonesia is centrally located amid ancient trade routes between the Far East, South Asia and the Middle East. Comprising over 17,500 islands divided roughly into 7 major island groups, the country is infinitely diverse and retains the influences of many different religions and cultures, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Christianity and Islam, as well as indigenous folklore and mythical beliefs. As of 2020, about 90% of the country identifies as Muslim, so most of the nation’s people follow Islamic traditions around death and dying. This is not true, however, on the island of Bali, where Hinduism is the dominant religion, or in some pockets of indigenous people who live in the country’s outer provinces, where ancient traditions still reign. 

Read more about the death practices of Indonesians below. 

• On The Indonesian Island Of Borneo, Mourning Garments Have Been Crafted From Bark Cloth For Centuries
• In the Indonesian Province of Tana Toraja, Loved Ones Stay With the Family Long After Death
• The Hindus of Bali Practice Both Burial and Cremation of the Dead

Like neighboring China and Japan, the culture of South Korea is rooted in Confucianism, and, even as it has become a sizable force in the global economy, ancient practices and belief systems still influence the country’s norms. The importance of elders, harmonious relationships, and respect for nature are a large part of the nation’s ethos, and ancestors are celebrated both on the anniversary of their death and on important holidays, such as Sŏllal (the Lunar New Year) and Chusŏk (the harvest moon festival, or “Korean Thanksgiving”). Traditionally, burial was the preferred form of final disposition among South Koreans. However, lack of cemetery space has dictated a shift towards cremation in recent years. 

Read more about the death practices of South Koreans below. 

• In South Korea, Thousands Of People Are Holding Mock Funerals Alive In Order To Confront Mortality Head On. 
• Forced To Abandon Traditional Burial Due To Lack Of Space, South Koreans Are Turning Cremation Ashes Into Beads

Consisting of Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, and Slovakia, as well as the republics of Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine, Eastern Europe is generally viewed as the area of Europe that was once under Communist rule. Each of the Eastern European nations has its own culture, language and history, yet they also have many things in common, particularly their ties to both the East and the West. Although heavily influenced by Christianity and neighboring European nations such as Germany, Italy and France, many also had close relationships with the East. Russia, for example, was under the control of the Mongol Empire for centuries, and the Ottoman Empire controlled several nations to the south. Additionally, the Balkan Peninsula, which comprises Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia, was once occupied by the Turks. All of this led to a great deal of ethnic diversity, and cultural beliefs around life, death and mourning that are unique to the region in many ways.

Read about the death practices and beliefs of some of the nations of Eastern Europe below. 

Ukrainians

• The People of the Ukraine Maintain Deep Ties to Their Ancient Roots  In Their Beliefs Around Death

Romanians

• Despite Christianity’s Influence, the Romanian People Harbor Ancient Superstitions and Rituals Around Death

The Romani People (Roma)

• The Romani People Hold Fast to Ancient Superstitions Around Death and Remembrance 

Belarusians

• The Funeral Repast Holds a Sacred Place in Belarusian Beliefs Around Death

Czechs

• In the Czech Republic, Christmas Celebrations Are Colored by the Fear of Death 

Russians

• In Russia,  Funeral Fare Includes a Pancake Called Blini that Traditionally Marks Beginnings and Endings

Estonians

• In Estonia, The Dead Are Dressed in Full Travel Garb to Prepare Them for the Journey to the Afterlife

An immense country with a population of nearly 1.4 billion, India is the birthplace of four major religions, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Unlike many of its neighbors, it is a political democracy, but its culture still bears the remnants of the Hindu caste system, the oldest  and most deeply entrenched social stratification system in the world. Although discrimination on the basis of caste is currently illegal, it is still know to exist. 

With over 2,000 distinct ethnic groups, Indian culture is extraordinarily diverse. Hinduism remains the dominant religion, but all major religions are represented in its population to some extent. Open-air cremation is by far the most common form of final disposition, but for the nation’s large Muslim population, burial is preferred. 

Learn more about the death practices of the people of India below. 

• In The City of Varanasi Along The Ganges, a Sacred Ritual Frees the Souls  of the Dead.
• The Now Illegal Practice of Sati Condemned  Indian Widows to a Horrible Death 
• In the Zoroastrian Tradition, Dead Bodies Are Left to Decompose on Symbolic Towers in the Desert Sun
• In the Sikh Tradition, Ritual Chanting Accompanies the Soul on its Transition from Life to the Afterlife
• India’s Holi Festival Celebrates the Death of Winter and the Promise of New Life

The former home of the ancient Persian Empire, Iran was once a major influence on many of the countries of Europe and Asia, including Italy, Greece, Russia, and the Arabian peninsula. Known for its art, literature,poetry and food, ancient Persia boasted a sophisticated culture. It was also the birthplace of Zoroastrianism, one of the oldest monotheistic religions in the world. After the Muslim conquest in 633–654 CE, however, Persia slowly evolved into an Islamic state.Today it is ruled by the Shia majority, which took control of the government in 1979 after overthrowing the Western-backed  Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and establishing a theocracy led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who remains the religious leader of the country to this day. Modern day Iran is overwhelmingly Muslim, and its death practices and rituals adhere closely to Muslim teachings and beliefs. 

Read more about the traditions and death practices of Iranians below. 

• In Ancient Iran, The New Year Marked A Time To Celebrate And Comingle With The Souls Of The Dead
• In Modern-Day Iran, Many Muslims Still Cling To Ancient Ways Of Caring For The Dead.
• In Contemporary Iranian Culture, Rituals Around Death And Mourning Are Evolving To Reflect More Modern Norms

Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia bordered by China and Russia that is known for its vast, often barren landscape and rugged terrain. Approximately 30% of the population of the country are nomadic tribes people whose life revolves around raising livestock. The dominant religion is Tibetan Buddhism, but a large portion of the Mongolians are irreligious, due to the influence of the Chinese, who ruled the area until the country declared its independence in 1921. 

• Mongolia’s Nomads Practice Ritual Excarnation, Leaving Their Dead On The Frozen Steppes For Scavengers To Remove.

Africa is a massive continent comprising 30.4 million square kilometers or over 11.7 million square miles. (For reference, that’s larger than China, India, the contiguous U.S. and all of Europe combined!) Currently made up of 54 independent nations and four dependencies, it has a population of about 1.3 billion people with an average age of about 20 years. Despite recent economic growth, it remains the world’s least affluent continent, and many of its inhabitants live in desperate poverty. 

Although African culture is diverse in many respects — for example, each region has its own customs, language,cuisine and style of dress — the overarching belief systems of the region are fairly harmonious, especially when it comes to spirituality, religion and beliefs around life and death. Nominally, most Africans are either Christian or Muslim, but traditional African religious beliefs are widespread.. This is especially true in the nations of Central Africa and parts of West Africa, which are more rural and less developed than the neighboring countries to the north and south. Many people in these regions still adhere to ancient funeral and burial rituals that were practiced by their ancestors. 

Read more about African beliefs about death, mourning and remembrance below. 

• In Traditional African Belief Systems, Life And Death Are Inextricably Linked Through The Spirits Of The Dead
• In Some Regions Of Africa, Funerals Are So Lavish and Costly That Families Are Left Destitute

West Africans

• How Science, Medicine and Tradition Clashed During The Ebola Epidemic in Western Africa 
• In Parts Of West Africa, Professional Pallbearers Dance Coffins To Their Final Resting Place

Liberians

• For The People Of Liberia, Mourning Rituals Are Essential to Allowing The Spirit Of The Loved One To Move On

Burkinabé (citizens of Burkina Faso)

• For The Dagara People Of Burkina Faso, Tears Are An Essential Part Of Coping With Grief And Loss 

Ghananians

• For The Ga People Of Ghana, Fanciful Coffins Are A Way To Celebrate The Dead
• Ghanian Funeral Goers Celebrate Death With Bold Colors, Elaborate Coffins And Days-Long Parties
• For the Asante People of Ghana, A Folktale About Death Became a Symbol of Resilience in the Face of Oppression

Nigerians

• To The Annang People Of Nigeria, A Proper Funeral Ensures A Peaceful Transition To The Afterlife
• For Some Nigerians, Naming an Infant Is Looked Upon  as a Way To Ward Off a Disastrous Fate
• The Igbo People Of  Southeastern Nigeria Hold Two Separate Funeral, One to Mourn And One to Celebrate  

Kenyans

• In Northeast Kenya, Female Elders of The Giriama People Perform a Funeral Dance Called Kifudu to Aid Community Mourning

Ugandans

• The Banyankole People of Southwestern Uganda Believe Death Is the Work of Sorcerers. 

Somalians

• In Somalia, Muslim Families Follow Strict Rituals To Ensure The Dead Have A Swift Transition To The Afterlife.

The Massai

• The Rites Of Inheritance of The Nomadic Maasai People Reflect Their Belief That Life Ends With Physical Death.

South Africans

• Rejecting The Solemn Funeral Rites Of Their Elders, Many Young South Africans Are Celebrating With Parties After The Tears.

• In The Belief System of The Xhosa People Of South Africa, the Spirits Of  the Dead Must Be Guided to the Afterlife Before Returning Home Again

Malagasy (the people of Madagascar)

• In A Waning Ritual Known As Famadihana, Malagasy Families Remove The Bodies Of The Dead From Their Graves To Celebrate With Them Again

Moroccans

• Muslim Families In Morocco Follow The Death Rituals Of Islam, Including Dressing The Dead In White

Egyptians

• In Ancient Egypt, Death Masks Were A Way To Preserve The Likenesses And Spirits Of The Dead
• In Ancient Egypt, Pets And Livestock Were Mummified And Buried With Their Owners to Keep
• Them Company in the Afterlife 
• In Ancient Egypt, Mummification And Entombment Helped To Preserve The Bodies Of Kings And The Elite
• In The Valley of The Kings, Archeologists Still Search For More Ancient Egyptian Tombs
• Ramose’s Tomb In The Ancient Egyptian City Of Thebes Still Provides Clues To Ancient Egyptian Culture

The single largest religion by total number of adherents (2.832 billion,) Christianity accounts for the largest percentage of all global religions — about 31%. The highest number of Christians currently live in the U.S., followed by Brazil, Mexico, Russia and The Philippines. Interestingly, however, if one looks at the percentage of the total population that adhere to Christianity, Vatican City (which is 100% Christian) tops the list, followed by Romania and three island nations, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and Timor Leste, which each boasts the highest percentage of Christians by population, at 99%. 

Christianity is, of course, not a single religion. Broken down by total number of adherents, the major denominations of Christianity are:

Roman Catholics	1.2 billion	54%
Protestants	800,640,000	35%
Eastern Orthodox	260,380,000	11.4 %
Other	60,380,000	1.3%

The two top denominations, Roman Catholics and Protestants, share many common beliefs, including the belief in Jesus as the Savior, the concept of the  Holy Trinity, and the existence of Heaven and Hell. Catholics, however, also believe in the existence of purgatory, where the souls of those who lived a moral but imperfect life go to be purified before they are allowed into the kingdom of God. Protestant doctrine, on the other hand, teaches that the soul leaves the body immediately upon death and goes to Heaven (for the righteous) or Hell. 

Catholics also differ from Protestants in their belief in the concept of papal infallibility, which says that when the pope makes a solemn decree on matters of faith or morals, he is speaking the word of God and his pronouncement must be accepted and obeyed.

Additionally, nearly all Christian religions believe in the resurrection of Jesus, which serves as a bedrock of many doctrines of the Christian faith. Celebrated on Easter Sunday, the Resurrection is said to have occurred 3 days after Christ died on the cross, when a group of disciples found his tomb empty and no sign of his body anywhere. This was considered proof that Jesus was, in fact, the son of God and had triumphed over death.It also solidified the doctrine that all Christians would one day rise from the dead, and their bodies and souls would be reunited again in the kingdom of God. 

Death Practices of Christians

The death practices of Christians vary a great deal, especially in modern times. Not long ago, earth burial was the only acceptable form of final disposition for all Christans, who believed it was the only way the body and soul could be reunited one day. But during the Victorian era, Protestant religions began to gradually embrace the idea of cremation as an acceptable and more sanitary means of disposing of the dead. The  Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, strongly opposed the practice until 1963, when Pope John II bowed to public pressure and declared cremation acceptable as long as the ashes were buried afterwards. The Church reaffirmed this position in 2019.  Today, Roman Catholics who choose cremation can be celebrated at a funeral Mass with the ashes present if they so choose.

By contrast, Eastern Orthodox religions such as the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches still oppose cremation except in extreme circumstances (for example, a public health crisis such as Ebola). Unlike Protestants and Roman Catholics, they still hold fast to the belief that cremation  interferes with the resurrection of the body on Judgment Day. Most Eastern Orthodox religions also eschew the concepts of Heaven and Hell, believing that the afterlife comes only after the reunification of body and soul on the Last Day, when those who lived a moral life will enter the  presence of God.

Learn more about the death practices of Christians of various denominations in the articles below. 

• Cremated Remains Should be Buried, Not Scattered or Kept in an Urn, Says the Roman Catholic Church
• For Roman Catholics, Blessed Candles Are An Important Part of the Ritual of Last Rights 
• The Roman Catholic Funeral Mass Is a Solemn, Ancient Ceremony Still Practiced Today 
• In the Ancient Crypts of Capuchin Monks, Beautiful Art Dispels the Fear of Death
• In the Catholic Religion, Final Prayers for the Dying Are Known as Last Rites or the Anointing of the Sick
• For the Amish, Simplicity Is a Way of Life — and Death
• In the Quaker Faith, Death Rituals Are Modest, In Keeping With Their Way of Life
• An Old Mormon Tradition, Creamy, Cheesy Hashbrowns Are Still a Staple at Mormon Funerals
• Although Their Beliefs Are Somewhat Different, Mormons Approach Funerals in Much the Same Way Other Christians Do
• Anthroposophy Helps Christians Approach Death with Less Fear

Islam is the fastest growing world religion with the second largest number of adherents — 1.8 billion — as of 2015. It is also the religion with the highest number of births per capita, and the youngest median age (25 years in 2015 versus 32 years for non-Muslims.) As a result of these demographics, experts predict that the Muslim population growth will outpace world population growth by over 100% by 2060, and Islam will be the dominant world religion by 2100. 

Islam is the dominant religion in almost all of the Middle East and parts of South Asia and Africa. The five countries with the largest number of Muslims (as adherents of Islam are known)  as of 2021 are Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Nigeria. But by percentage of the total population, the top 10 Muslim countries are: 

• Maldives – 100% 
• Mauritania – 99.9%
• Somalia – 99.8% 
• Tunisia – 99.8% 
• Afghanistan – 99.7% 
• Algeria – 99.7% 
• Iran – 99.4%
• Yemen – 99.2%

In the U.S. and Canada, Islam is still practiced by just a very small minority — 1.1% and 3.2% of the total population respectively.

The religion of Islam is dominated by two main sects, Suni and Shia, both of which include a number of subsects. Once united as a single entity, the two sects split after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 A.D. when a dispute about who should name his successor caused a rift between the two. The Suni majority eventually won out, but the dispute between the two sects continued, growing more contentious as time wore on. Today, the conflict between the two contributes to a great deal of political and civil unrest in the Middle East. 

Despite their differences, Sunni and Shia Muslims share almost identical beliefs, the most important being the worship of a single, all-powerful God (Allah.) Like other Abrhamic religions, they also believe in an afterlife in which those who lived a moral life on earth are rewarded, and sinners are punished. Additionally, both sects adhere to the Five Pillars of Islam, which include:

• Profession of faith — Muslims profess the belief that that there is only one God and Muhammad is his prophet
• Prayer — Devout Muslims must pray facing Mecca five times a day at specific times, facing Mecca
• Alms — Muslims are expected to donate a percentage of their income to community members in need
• Fasting — During the daylight hours of Ramadan, the 9th month of the Muslim calendar, all Muslims who are healthy enough to do so are expected to fast
• Pilgrimage — Every devout Muslim who has the means to do so must make at least one pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. 

Death Practices of Muslims

Because Muslims believe in the reunification of the body and spirit on Judgment Day, burial is the only permitted form of final disposition in the Islamic faith. Muslims also avoid embalming and autopsies unless required by law, since they are considered a desecration of the body, which is prohibited by the Quran (Islam’s central religious text). After-death care is performed by the family: One or two family members of the same gender as the person who died wash the body immediately after death and cover it with a plain white sheet or shroud. Burial happens as soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. If possible, the person is not moved until the funeral, which takes place at a mosque. There, mourners gather outdoors facing Mecca, and an imam recites prayers for the dead. The person is then transported to their final resting place accompanied by a funeral procession, which typically consists of only male members of the community, although women and children are sometimes permitted to attend. 

You can read more about the death and mourning practices of Muslims in the articles below. 

• An Imam Provides a Close-Up View of Muslim Funeral Rites and Traditions
• In the Muslim Community, Grief Is Usally Expressed Quietly, with Tears and Silent Prayer
• During the Holy Month of Ramadan, Muslims Adapt Funerals and Mourning Rituals to Accommodate the Fast

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, with customs and traditions that date back about 5,000 years. It is the third largest religion by number of adherents — about 1.35 billion as of 2021. The vast majority of Hindus live in India, followed by Nepal and Bangladesh. Due to a relatively large number of Indian immigrants arriving in North America in recent years, the U.S. and Canada are currently home to about 3 million adherents of the Hindu faith as well.

Hinduism is generally viewed as a pantheistic religion whose basic tenets include the belief that “god” is the universe and all things in the universe are “god.” Adherents believe in the existence of one supreme being, but also allow the existence of other lesser gods. Somewhat similar to the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity, Hindus believe in a Supreme entity who takes on different forms and roles. The three main forms are Brahma; the creator, Vishnu, the sustainer and Shiva, the destroyer. 

For many Hindus, Hinduism is considered a way of life based on a set of guiding principles rather than a religion based on strict doctrine or laws. The essence of these guiding principles is encompassed in the four puruṣārthas, or proper goals for a human life, which include:

• Dharma (ethics and morality)
• Artha (prosperity, living an easeful life)
• Kama (desires, pleasures and passions)
• Moksha (emancipation, self-realization, and the liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth.

Although there are numerous Hindu sects, each of which views these principles somewhat differently, the core belief held by most is that practicing the first three purusharthas allows the soul to eventually reach moksha, or unification with Brahma and freedom from mortal suffering. 

Hindu Death Practices and Beliefs

Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Hinduism holds that the body has no inherent spiritual value; it is merely a receptacle for the immortal soul. Adherents believe in reincarnation — the cycle of birth, death and rebirth in which a single soul transmigrates from one body to another after death. This cycle continues indefinitely as the soul progresses through a series of lives with the ultimate goal of attaining “ “mukti,” which loosely translates to enlightenment, liberation or release. This process isn’t linear, however. A soul may be elevated to a higher plane in one incarnation only to face more suffering in the next. The quality of karma, or the spiritual energy generated by a person’s actions, determines where in the continuum the soul arrives.

Because Hindus view the body as a “prison” that holds the soul captive in life, they practice cremation as a means of, at least temporarily, releasing the soul from suffering. In India, cremations are typically held in open-air ghats along the Ganges River, a Hindu holy site. In the U.S. however, the law requires that cremations be performed in a crematorium. 

Read more about the death practices of Hindus in the articles below. 

• In Kathmandu in Nepal, Hindus Gather Along the Bagmati River to Cremate and Mourn Their Dead
• Like Many Religious Adherents, Hindus Practice Rituals to Ward Off Misfortune for the Living and the Dead
• Hindu Death Rituals Reflect the Principle of Reverence for the Soul Both in Life and After Death
• For Many Hindus, Sharing Food is a Way of Guiding the Souls of Those Who Have Died Into the Afterlife
• For Adherents of Hinduism, Bathing a Loved One Who Has Died in a River Is a Holy Rite

The world’s fourth largest religion, Buddhism is practiced by about 535 million people, or about 8-10% of the world population. Its adherents are concentrated almost entirely in Asia, with Thailand and Cambodia boasting the highest proportion of Buddhists by population at about 95%. China, while not a predominantly Buddhist country, has the largest number of Buddhists in the world — about 244 million.

Like Hinduism, Buddhism is often viewed as a set of guiding principles rather than a religion per se. It originated in India sometime between the 4th and 6th centuries BCE and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha). In a very general sense, Buddhism is founded on Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, which are:

• All humans suffer
• The cause of suffering is desire ( for power, possessions, control etc.)
• Desire can be overcome
• The path to overcome desire exists

The Buddha outlined the path to overcoming desire as the Noble Eightfold Path. It includes: right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and right ecstasy. He also taught the concept of anatman or “non-self”– the understanding that all things, including what we view as “self,” are impermanent, and that the suffering wrought by desire is the result of clinging to what is. Thus, letting go of desire and embracing nonattachment is the key to reaching the final goal of enlightenment (nirvana).  

In a more modern form of Buddhism known as the Mahayana tradition, less focus is placed on individual enlightenment and more on the practice of compassion and inclusiveness for the betterment of all humanity. Other traditions, such as Zen Buddhism, encourage self-actualization through meditation with the goal of finding the Buddha within oneself. 

Buddhist Beliefs Around Death

As mentioned above, the cycle of death and rebirth is central to the Buddhist belief system although it differs from the concept of reincarnation that characterizes the Hindu faith. Buddhists, like Hindus, believe that humans achieve a state of enlightenment (nirvana) only after passing through many “lives.” But since Buddhists believe that there is no separate “self” these lives are seen not as a rebirth of an individual but as movement through various realms of existence. These realms are known collectively as “samsara,” a Sanskrit word that translates literally to “passing through,” but which many Buddhist philosophers describe as the suffering we create through attachment and desire. Once a person achieves freedom from samsara, they reach nirvana, and the cycle of birth, death and rebirth ends. 

Read more about Buddhist beliefs and practices around death in the articles below. 

• How Do Zen Buddhists Reconcile the Concept of Non-Self and Reincarnation? 
• The Buddhist Belief in Reincarnation As an Affirmation of Infinite Consciousness
• Some Buddhists Practice Corpse Meditation to Appreciate the Transitory Nature of Life
• In Buddhism, the Self Is an Illusion, and So Death Is Not the End 
• In Japan, Buddhists Honor Their Ancestors at a Three-Day Festival Held Every Year
• Traditional Buddhist Funerals Are Colorful Affairs Marked by Chanting and Prayers
• For a Brief Time in the 1800s, A Handful of Buddhist Monks Attempted to Mummify Themselves to Achieve Enlightenment

Judaism, the religion practiced by people of the Jewish faith, is the world’s fifth largest religion, with about 15 million adherents (about 0.18% of the world’s population). The largest number of Jews today live in one of two countries — Israel, with about 6.9 million, and the United States, with about 5.8 million. Canada and France are home to about 400,000 and 450,000 Jews respectively. 

The oldest of the monotheistic religions, Judaism has been in existence for about 4,000 years. It’s core belief system is based on the teachings found in the Tanakh or “Hebrew Bible;” its origins are explained in the first book of the Tanakh, the Torah. Jews believe in a single, almighty God, who has communicated with them through the ages through a series of prophets, beginning with the prophet Abraham. Unlike Christians, who believe Jesus was the Messiah (savior) sent by God to redeem mankind, most people of the Jewish faith believe that the Messiah has not yet arrived. 

According to the Torah, God first revealed himself to the prophet Abraham and made a promise to him (the covenant between the parts) that he would one day be the leader of  “all the land from the deserts of Egypt to the Euphrates,” which later came to be known as the Promised Land. After this revelation, however, the descendents of Abraham were enslaved by the Egyptians for hundreds of years. 

It was nearly 1,000 years after Abraham that God revealed himself again, this time to Moses. A Hebrew man raised by Egyptian royalty, Moses was instructed by God to lead the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt and across the Red Sea. They landed on  Mount Sanai, where God revealed himself again and handed down the Ten Commandments. 

Today, the Jewish faith is characterized by two rather distinct groups, Orthodox Jews and Reform Jews. The two differ primarily in their approach to the Torah. According to Rabbi George Stern, Orthodox Jews view the Torah as the literal word of God, which cannot be changed or even interpreted, but only understood. This understanding has been passed down by prophets, rabbis and other holy men as “halachah,” or God’s law (literally,”God’s way”). Thus, Orthodox Jews believe there is only one “authentic” way to practice the Jewish faith and adhere strictly to the Torah’s teachings, even today.

Reform Jews, on the other hand, believe in a more nuanced approach to the Torah and its teachings. They view the Torah as a “God-inspired attempt by Hebrews/Israelites/Jews to understand their surroundings and relationship with God” rather than a set of immutable laws. They also recognize that interpretation of the Torah relies at least in part on geography and culture, and that there is room for individuals to have a more personal understanding of what it means. 

Jewish Beliefs and Traditions Around Death

The Jewish religion is steeped in history, and its traditions around death are varied and rich. Most Jews believe in an afterlife in which the souls of the dead go to a specific place, denoted as Sheol (the underworld) in the Bible, but also known by a number of other names, including the “yeshiva shel mallah” (the school on high) and “shamayim,” which means skies. Although morality plays a large part in the Jewish faith, Jews do not believe in Hell or divine retribution as it is perceived in Christianity and Islam. The closest approximation of Hell in the Jewish religion, which is reserved for those who renounce God, is “to be cut off from one’s kin.” 

The Jewish faith teaches that all people are created in the image of God, and should be treated with respect in both life and death. For this reason, the dying and the dead are handled with utmost care. In the Orthodox tradition, this includes a prescribed set of rituals including prayers at the bedside and the ritual cleansing and shrouding of the body after death — a rite known as “ tahara.” 

In traditional Judaism, burial is the only acceptable form of final disposition, so cremation is rare for those of the Jewish faith (although acceptance of the practice is growing among Reform Jews.) Jews are traditionally buried as soon as possible after death (preferably within 24 hours) and are not embalmed. Mourning rituals also follow a predictable path, starting with the seven-day mourning period known as “shiva” followed by an additional 30 days of mourning known as “shloshim.” The children of a person who died also commemorate one year anniversary of the death. 

Read more about Jewish practices around death and mourning in the articles below.  

• Many Jews Pass on Their Wisdom and Beliefs Through the Tradition of Ethical Wills
• Shiva, the Seven-Day Mourning Period Immediately After a Death, Helps Jewish Families Cope with Loss
• A Jewish Parable Asks Us to Consider How Our Lives Will Be Judged When We Die.
• Some Modern Reform Jews Are Adopting Traditional Orthodox Burial Rites 
• Although It Is No Longer Widely Practiced, Taharah Is a Beautiful Jewish Ritual Worth Revisiting Today
• The Symbolism of Stones Is A Large Part of Jewish Views About God and Death
• For Jewsih Families, Yahrzeit Candles Are Part of An Annual Ritual to Remember A Loved One Who Has Died

We live in an increasingly secular society in which a growing proportion of people adhere to no religion and/or do not believe in God. According to the Pew Research Center, the “religiously unaffiliated,” which includes convinced atheists, agnostics, and those who hold spiritual but nontheistic beliefs (for example, pagans), are the second largest religious group in North America, much of Europe, and parts of Asia. In the U.S., about one in three adults currently ascribes to no religion, while only a very small minority (3% and 5% respectively) are convinced atheists or avowed agnostics (those who neither believe nor disbelieve in God.) Globally, the highest number of atheists and agnostics in the world is in China, where about 52% of over 1.4 billion are irreligious.

People who claim no religious affiliation come from many different cultures and different parts of the world. Therefore, it’s impossible to accurately characterize their beliefs and rituals about death as a single group. In most cases, religiously non-affiliated people identify with a specific culture and view death and mourning as do others in the society in which they live. 

Read more about some of the practices of the religiously unaffiliated in the articles below. 

• As The Number Of Religiously Unaffiliated Grows, Funerals Are Becoming More Personal And Flexible
• In Pagan Cultures, the Yew Tree Is Viewed as a Symbol of Death 
• In Wiccan Culture, Reverence for the Earth Carries Through to Funeral Rites
• Ancestor Worship and Reverence for Nature Are Part of Wiccan Culture

A minor religion with about 4.2 million adherents who mostly reside in India, Jainism is a nontheistic belief system that closely mirrors the Hindu faith. Jains do not believe in God, but instead base their moral code on a set of three guiding principles or “three jewels”: right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. The most important of these is non-violence (ahimsa). Jains believe that all life is sacred and all living things, including plants and animals, have souls. They are strict vegetarians and believe that life should be lived in ways that conserve the world’s resources. Other tenets of Jainism (known as vows) include no possessions, (non attachment), no lying, no stealing, and chastity (including celibacy for monks and nuns).

Jainism as it is practiced today was founded by Mahavira, an Indian prince born as Vardhamana who lived around 599 to 527 BCE. Much like the Buddha, Vardhamana left his home at the age of 30 to seek answers to the world’s suffering. Over the next 12 years, he lived an ascetic existence of physical deprivation and intense meditation before finally achieving enlightenment (Kevalnyan.) He then began teaching his form of Jainism to his followers, who gave him the name Mahavira (from “maha,” meaning “great,” and “vira,” meaning hero). The texts that contain his teaching are the basis of the Jainist belief system and are known as Agamas. 

Like those of the Hindu faith, Jains believe in the cycle of birth, death and rebirth known as reincarnation. Those who die may come back as plant, animal or a human depending on the karma they created during their lives. When all karma is released, they enter a state of enlightenment and are liberated from the cycle of rebirth. 

Learn more about the Jains approach to death and the afterlife in the articles below. 

• Adherents of Jainism Sometimes Practice Ritual Starvation to Achieve Enlightenment at the End of Life

People throughout the world have for centuries followed traditions and rituals around death, mourning and remembrance. Many of these are quite similar: ritual washing of the body; a period of visitation in which friends and family come together to grieve, and earth burial or cremation are common to many cultures and many religions across the globe. At the same time, some cultures adhere to rites and rituals that many of us might view as odd or even grisly Whether dictated by tradition, superstition, or simple geography, they are outside the mainstream, yet quite “normal” for the people who practice them. 

One thing that all of these beliefs and traditions have in common, however, is that they provide substance to an experience that nobody living can understand. Death is and always has been a mystery, and much of what we believe about the soul and the afterlife is a matter of faith. Rites and rituals help us put the unknowable into human terms. They give us something to hold on to when someone we love dies. Whether that’s belief in an afterlife or a ritual that releases the soul into a new realm, our cultural and religious beliefs around death provide structure, comfort and a container for grief. And as long as death is part of life, we will find them everywhere we look.